Crucifixion
was an ignominious, barbaric form of capital punishment that was
practiced up to the fourth century by the Romans, Phoenicians,
Persians, Seleucids, Egyptians, Greeks, Carthaginians and Jews
when it was abolished by Emperor Constantine. Cicero referred to
it as Crudelissimum eterrimunque supplicum, the
most cruel and atrocious of punishments". There,
however, appeared to be a resurgence of crucifixion
of Christians by Arabs in the seventh century during the
Arabic-Christian conflicts. Isolated cases are still reported
today in Africa and the Philippines. It is believed
that the Romans learned the technique from the Carthaginians,
who were known for their methods of torture which also included
impaling, burning in oil, drowning and beating. In general
crucifixion was reserved for slaves, hardened criminals,
political agitators, religious agitators, pirates and those
committing high treason. Roman citizens were essentially
excluded from being crucified except for high treason or serious
crimes against the state and served as a highly successful
deterrent against these crimes. Roman Crucifixions were carried
out by specialized teams of five experienced men; the exactor
mortis, a centurion who was in charge and four
soldiers , the quaternio.[1]
The
scientific discipline that deals with the mechanism and cause of
death in violent deaths such as crucifixion resides in the
medical specialty of forensic pathology which
requires many years of specialized education, training and
experience for board certification. The forensic pathologist is
a medical sleuth,
an expert in reconstruction whose court testimony must
possess a high degree of medical certainty because a
defendant's future or even his life may depend on it.
Unfortunately,
the medical aspects of the Shroud-crucifixion literature is
filled with a farrago of articles by unqualified individuals
including surgeons, radiologists, general practitioners,
psychiatrists, scientists and scholars in other areas of
expertise, laymen, etc. whose conclusions were based on
anecdotal, a priori speculations. Barbet,[2],
[3] however, did make
an attempt to support some of his hypotheses with experimental
data but made a series of serious anatomical errors and
suppositions which unfortunately have been propagated ad
infinitum in magazines, journals, books, television
documentaries, etc. as definitive facts without any
attempt by anyone to verify his conclusions. Kraemer
poignantly points out, " When those without adequate
training in a particular field are permitted to influence
progress in a particular field (even those with excellent
training in another field ), the problem is not merely that they
are likely to produce lies, but that their lies may impede
others' search for truth in that field. It is vital to
medical research that amateur science be discouraged, that
appropriate professional training or oversight in each
field be required before proposals are approved or papers
accepted for publication." [4]
Let
us embark on a forensic journey from Gethsemane to Calvary, in a
sense a forensic way of the Cross in order to gain
a more precise understanding of the effects of crucifixion and
its manifestations on the Shroud. In this
regard, it is important that we examine each phase of the
journey including the hematidrosis, the scourging, the crowning
with thorns, the fixation to the cross, the suspension on the
cross and the mechanism and cause of death. It is the sum of all
the this information that affords us the way to reconstruct the
various findings on the Shroud with the mechanisms encountered
in crucifixion.
GETHSEMANE:
The scriptural account of the agony in the Garden of Gethsemane
by St. Luke " My soul is very sorrowful even unto death,
remain here and watch" (Mark 14: 34) and in. "After
a period of utter exhaustion and repeated praying, he
looked up to heaven and said "'Father, if thou art
willing, remove this cup from me: nevertheless, not my
will but yours be done. "And there appeared to him an angel
from heaven, strengthening him, and being in agony, he prayed
the more earnestly and his sweat became like great drops of
blood failing down upon the ground. "(Luke 22
:42‑44).. The most logical explanation of this
phenomenon is as follows. The severe mental anxiety due to a
profound fear of His prescient sufferings activated the
sympathetic nervous system to invoke the stress-fight or flight
reaction to such a degree causing hemorrhage of the vessels
supplying the sweat glands into the ducts of the sweat
glands and extruding out onto the skin. While hematidrosis
has been reported to occur from other rare medical entities,
the presence of profound fear accounted for a significant number
of reported cases including six cases in men condemned to
execution, a case occurring during the London blitz, a
case involving a fear of being raped, a fear of a storm while
sailing etc.[5],
[6] The
hematidrosis is a reflection of the severity of
Jesus' mental suffering. The effects on the body is that
of weakness and mild to moderate dehydration from the severe
anxiety and both the blood and sweat loss.
THE
SCOURGING (flagellatio)
was
a brutal episode. The effects of the scourging appear very vivid
on the Shroud showing dumbbell-type injuries, obviously
caused by the flagrum which contains leather thongs with bits of
metal or bone at the ends. The crucarius was tied by the
hands to a fixed object like a pillar, bent over and lashed. The
weight of the metal or bony objects would also carry them to the
front of the body as well as the back and arms. The brutality of
scourging can not be overestimated because these objects would
penetrate the skin creating small lacerations (tears),
contusions or welts. It is interesting that there are over
a hundred lashes counted on the Shroud. Does this estimate
conflict with the Deuteronomy dictate (25:3) not to exceed 40
lashes? The answer is simple. The flagrum consists of at
least three thongs, each lash would cause three lash marks and
40 lashes times 3 would equal 120. These markings on the
Shroud would be neither evidence of a bruise or welt as
contended by some but instead they appear to be impressions of
small breaks in the skin resulting in "patterned
injuries" like we regularly see in the practice of forensic
pathology as different instruments cause different patterns.
These patterns on the Shroud are a result of impressions made
by the blood present within the breaks in the skin. Such
injuries are only seen at autopsy after gently washing the
wounds otherwise there would be blood all over the body from
these wounds obscuring the patterned impressions. . When the
body is initially washed , a fine oozing of blood within the
wounds would make the impressions. When the body is initially
washed , a fine oozing of blood within the wounds would make the
impressions. Ultraviolet photos taken of the back image
even show numerous fine scratches that would not be seen
if the blood had not been washed from the body. This mechanism
was easily demonstrated by briefly washing the wounds containing
dried or clotted blood of victims of traffic accidents.[7]
The
victim would fall to his knees with each lash, writhing in
agony, getting up each time until he could no longer lift
himself up. There would be convulsive activity, tremors,
vomiting, and marked thirst. Episodes of fainting would be
associated with this type of flogging. The pain is so severe
that many have pleaded for mercy and crying would be common.
Periods of severe sweating would occur, intermittently. The
severe pain associated with injuries of this degree would
be a harbinger of traumatic shock soon to ensue and the
fluid loss from excessive sweating coupled with the vomiting and
sweating added to the blood loss and sweating from and the
hematidrosis would cause an early stage of hypovolemia. The
severe beating of the chest wall transmits to the lungs and
promotes the gradual development of fluid around the lungs
(pleural effusion), generally a few hours following the
injuries.
THE
CROWNING OF THORNS was not only a parody of Jesus'
kingship but was another physical torture inflicted on Jesus.
The tortuous flows on the forehead and the significant amount of
blood on the head region had to have been the result of
penetration of the skin by sharp thorns from a plant like those
of Ziziphus spina christi (Syrian Christ thorn) or
Zizyphus paliuris christi (Christ's thorn) both of the
Buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae). In the opinion of leading
botanists of the plants of the holy land like Evanari,[8]
Post,[9] Hegi,[10]
Tristram, Warburger, Moldenke[11],
Schwerin[12]
and even the great Linnaeus[13]
were of the opinion that one or the other of the Ziziphus
species were the most likely candidates. None of them even
considered Gundelia tournefortii which has recently been
implicated. Whether this plant is capable of penetrating the
skin and inducing sufficient bleeding must be tested. From
a forensic point of view, Ziziphus spina christi (Syrian
Christ thorn) or Zizyphus paliuris christi (Christ's
thorn) would cause puncture-type wounds with significant
bleeding when struck with the reed ("..and took the
reed and struck him on the head" Mt.27:30) accounting for
the blood flows and accumulations of blood in the head region of
the Shroud.
It
is of interest that the thorny acacia (Acacia niltotica) that
grows profusely around the hills of Jerusalem has recently
emerged as a contender. A crown of thorns made from this
plant was unearthed in a sarcophagus dating to 1189 A.D. which
also contained the remains of a mummified "knight of the
temple" with a bashed skull and an inscription saying
"this man saved the crown of thorns from the hands of the
infidel". The physical effects of the crowning with thorns
using a thorn plant like Zizyphus paluris christi as an example
with its sharp, closely spaced thorns would most likely cause
trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux) due to irritation of the
ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (fifth nerve) and
branches of the greater occipital nerves which supply sensory
innervation to the front and back of the head region,
respectively. This is characterized by severe, lancinating ,
paroxysmal, electric shock-like pains across the face
lasting from seconds to minutes with intermittent refractory
periods. Trigger zones are common in various areas of the face
which trigger episodes of shooting pains across the head region
if touched and is difficult to treat medically. Severe
cases may not respond to medical treatment with drugs such as
carbamazepine requiring nerve blocks or ablation surgery. The
severe pain would be added to the depth of imminent traumatic
shock now developing from the scourging.
THE
ROAD TO CALVARY:
The most direct way from the Antonia to Calvary
was about a half
mile. It was an unpaved, bumpy road and it has been estimated
that Jesus carried a 50 to 75 pound patibulum
(cross piece) at least part of way. Carrying the patibulum,
he would fall down and get back up on his feet, only to fall
again and get back up again. When one analyzes the physical
condition that Jesus was in at this stage from a medical and
physiological point of view, and noting that he would have to
carry the patibulum weighing at least 50 pounds for a distance
of almost a half mile from Antonio to Calvary by the most direct
way, it would be doubtful if He could successfully complete that
distance in the condition that he was in. But what is most
interesting is that scriptures comes to the rescue and informs
us that they delegated the job to Simon the Cyrenian to carry it
the rest of the way allegedly because they doubted whether
he could make it and they obviously wanted him crucified.
At this stage he would be light headed, drenched in sweat and
manifest postural instability.
THE
CRUCIFIXION: Upon
Jesus' arrival at Calvary, He exhibits a pale, mask-like
appearance, is extremely weak, has severe thirst and his
whole body is wracked with pain. He is in an early stage
of traumatic and hypovolemic shock. After casting lots for his
garments, they would have forced Him to the ground on his
back, the patibulum placed just under his shoulders and
upper back and members of the quaternio laying on top of him to
hold him down and stretching out His arms on the patibulum while
they drove iron spikes through His hands into the patibulum.
This maneuver in holding Him down would cause almost unbearable
pains in His chest because of the trauma from the scourging.
It is well known in emergency medicine that trauma to the chest
causes severe pain with the slightest pressure on the chest wall
and with breathing.
Nailing
the Hands: There has
been much controversy as to where the nails pierced the hands.
When Barbet 2, 3 passed nails through the middle of
the palms of a freshly amputated arm and found that they tore
through the skin between the fingers at a pull of about 88
pounds, he collated this with mathematical calculations which
revealed that if the body is suspended with the arms at an angle
of about 65 degrees with the upright there is a pull on each
hand greater than the entire weight of the body. He then noted
that the image of the hand wound on the Shroud was located at
the back of the hand where the wrist joins the hand. Following
some experimentation, he reported that “...... one finds that
in the middle of the bones of the wrists there is a free space
bounded by the CAPITATE, the SEMILUNAR, the TRIQUETRAL
and the HAMATE bones. We know this space so well that we
know in accordance with DESTOT'S work.." 2,
3.
Having
M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in human anatomy, I immediately, realized
that Barbet made a very serious error because the
space bounded by these four bones are located on the little
finger (ulnar) side of the wrist not on the thumb (radial) side
as is depicted on the Shroud! This is confirmed in
Barbet's 1937 book, Les Cinq Plaies du Christ2
where he includes a diagram of Destot's space which
shows that this space is in fact on the u1nar (little finger)
side of the wrist and not on the radial (thumb) side of
the wrist where the wound image is depicted on the Shroud.
This is also confirmed by any text on human anatomy.
In the same book there is a photograph of a cadaver that Barbet
nailed to a cross which also shows that the nails are indeed
nailed through the small finger (ulnar) side of the wrist and
not on the thumb (radial) side and in addition, shows a
crucifix with the nails placed on the ulnar side of the wrist
made by Villandre, the master sculptor, and acknowledged by
Barbet that it was made according to the "precise
information I had given him." It is interesting that
neither the diagram nor the suspended cadaver are included in
his later book, A Doctor at Calvary.3
Barbet made another serious anatomical error when he said that
anywhere from 1/2 to 2/3 of the trunk of the median nerve was
severed when he drove the nail through Destot's Space.
This is not anatomically possible because the median
nerve is not present in the area of Destot's Space but instead
runs along the wrist on the thumb (radial) side of the
wrist and along the thenar furrow into the palm of the hand.
An easy way to locate the median nerve on your own wrist is to
bend your wrist forward. You will see a firm, rope-like
structure jutting outward. This is the palmaris longus
tendon. The median nerve always runs along the thumb side of
this tendon. Barbet was obviously damaging the u1nar nerve
which runs in the area of Destot's space.
It
is important to remember that the hand wound image is located on
the back of the left hand, and only depicts the exit of
the nail not its entrance. Moreover,
The right hand wound image cannot be seen. We don't
specifically know where the nail entered the left hand and we
don't know if the nail entered or exited at a different place on
the right hand.
The
question that we are then confronted with is where would the
wound have to be made to be consistent with the Shroud? We do
know that the nail did not pierce the middle of the palm of
the left hand because it would not exit at the site of the wound
image where the Shroud shows it but we don't know if it pierced
the middle of the palm of the right hand. It
is also very important to note that Barbet's experiment with the
amputated arms along with the mathematical calculations that
Barbet based it on, namely the weight of the body divided
by twice the cosine of the angle is, however, not applicable
here because both are based on free hanging of the body without
foot support.
In this regard, during our suspension experiments discussed
later, the pain in the arms and shoulders were severe when the
feet were not secured with the seat belt but completely bearable
when the feet were secured. . During suspension a large
percentage of the weight is borne by the feet and legs, however
when they were allowed to slump, they did not note much of an
increased pull on arms and shoulders. This seems to
indicate that when the crucarius dies, only a small amount of
additional weight is exerted on the hands.
During suspension a significant percentage of the weight
is exerted in the area of the knee. When the
crucarius dies, some additional weight is exerted on the hands
due to slumping down. In this regard, two certified
mechanical engineers and I are currently in the process of
setting up the cross to measure the various forces exerted on
the hands and other parts of the body in various positions using
strain gauges and other equipment.
The
nailing was also, not between the distal radial and ulnar bones
because it wouldn't exit where the Shroud depicts it. There are
only two other possibilities that would satisfy the criteria of
emerging where the Shroud depicts it and at the same time
passing through a sturdy area. The nail could pass through
the radial (thumb) side of the wrist through a space created by
four other carpal bones; the navicular, lunate, greater
multangular and capitate bones, emerging in
the area where the Shroud depicts it. This area is equally as
sturdy as the path through Destot's Space but would in
fact injure the median nerve. The other possibility which
is more in accord with the perception of the location that most
Christians across the centuries perceived the wound to be. This
is in an area in the palm that we coined the Z area. The
nail would enter through a deep furrow called the thenar
furrow, seen at the base of the bulky prominence
extending from the base of the thumb. This area is located
as follows; touch your thumb to the tip of your little
finger. If a nail is driven into this furrow in
the upper part of the palm, a few centimeters from where the
furrow begins at the wrist, with the point of the nail angled at
ten to fifteen degrees toward the wrist and slightly toward the
thumb, there is a natural inclination of the nail to an area
created by the metacarpal bone of the index
finger and the capitate and lesser multangular
bones of the wrist ( the "Z" area ).
The trunk of the median nerve would be injured by this
path. Although, I demonstrated this path in the anatomy
dissection lab in the early fifties, it wasn't until several
years ago that this path was confirmed to me in a very dramatic
way at the Rockland County Medical Examiner's Office. A
young lady had been brutally stabbed over her whole body.
I found a defense wound on her hand where she had raised her
hand in an attempt to protect her face from the vicious
onslaught. Examination of this wound revealed that she was
stabbed in the thenar furrow in the palm of the hand, and the
knife had passed through the "Z" area exiting
at the back of the wrist exactly where it is displayed on the
Shroud. X-rays of the area revealed no evidence of
broken bones.
Another
feature of major importance in this case was that the body was
in rigor mortis when she was found with the thumb fixed in
rigor, in its normal location behind and to the left of the
index finger. It was not drawn into the palm. A dissection
of this area at autopsy revealed that although the median
nerve had been injured, the thumb had not been drawn into the
palm as was postulated by Barbet 3 .
Although
driving the nail through the side of the wrist opposite to
where Barbet shows it( radial side), cannot be excluded as a
possible pathway, the upper part of the palm is the
most plausible location for the following reasons; 1.
The palm region is the location where most Christians across the
centuries perceived the wound to be. 2.
The path through the upper palm (Z-area) is very strong and
anatomically sound. 3.
The path ends exactly where the Shroud shows the wound image. 4.
In the ancient literature, Lipsius and other authors and
painters and sculptors related and depicted the hands that were
transfixed in crucifixion. 5.
It assures that no bones are broken in accord with Exodus 12:46
and Numbers 9:12. 6.
It could explain the apparent lengthening of the fingers of the
Turin Shroud because of nail compression at this area. 7.
Lastly, it is where most of the stigmatists prior to Father Gino
Burressi like St. Francis of Assisi, Padre Pio, Theresa of
Konnersruth, St. Catherine of Sienna, Catherine of Ricci,
Louise Lateau, Marie Esperanza, etc. throughout the centuries
have displayed their wounds.
It
may be of interest to note that Monsignor Alfonso Paleotto
Archbishop of Bologna, who accompanied St. Charles Borromeo to
Turin in 1598, and who wrote the first description of the
Shroud, reasoned that the Romans did not drive the nail
straight through the palm, piercing the hand from one side to
the other but was driven through, obliquely toward
the arm and emerged in the carpal area where the Shroud depicts
it. He derived this conclusion as follows; First, he
quoted Zechariah's prophecy "What are these wounds
in the middle of your hands? (Zach.13:6). And David's
prediction, "They have pierced my hands."
And indicated that St. Thomas believed the wounds to be in
the middle of the hands. He then reasoned that the weight of the
body "would have torn the hand according to the
experiments made by master painters and sculptors with
dead bodies intended as models to copy for their
representations" and he quoted one of the
revelations of St. Bridget where the Holy Virgin told her that "The
hands of my Son were pierced in that part where the bone was
more solid." It is of interest that Barbet
severely criticized Paleotto's hypothesis as "anatomically
impossible.
The
medical effects of the nailing of the hands whether it be
through the Z-area or through the radial side of the
wrist, would be essentially the same. The median nerve would be
injured in either instance causing a painfully disabling
affliction of the median nerve called causalgia. Causalgia
can also occur in other peripheral nerves. The
first full description of causalgia was described in 1864 by
Mitchell, Morehouse and Keene[14]
in reference to Civil War injuries. The pain in median nerve
causalgia is an unbearable, exquisite pain described as a
searing, burning unrelenting pain traversing the arms like
lightning bolts. The person is unable to bear even the
gentlest local contacts. It may be aggravated by movement,
jarring, noise, a breeze or emotion. Increases in the ambient
temperature or exposure to the sun would bring on more
pain. Periodic episodes of marked sweating would also be
manifested. The concomitant presence of fatigue greatly
aggravates the degree of pain. Strong narcotic pain
killers proved to be ineffective in many cases thereby requiring
surgery to section the sympathetic nerves. Victims of
causalgia frequently went into shock if the pain could not be
controlled. This pain would have added significantly to the
traumatic shock that was already in process.
The
act of lifting the patibulum with Jesus' hands nailed to
it in order to place it in a mortise at the top of the
stipes that was anchored in the ground, would bring on renewed
burning, and lancinating pains traversing the arms due to
the pull of the hands against the nails. The hot temperature and
exposure to the sun would increase the pain further The pain was
brutal, markedly increasing the degree of traumatic shock.
Next,
the feet were nailed to the stipes by bending the knees in order
to lay the soles flat to the stipes or one foot on top of the
other and driving the spike through the feet. Branches of
the medial plantar nerves would be injured affording pains of
causalgia, similar to those of the hand described above.
THE
MISSING THUMBS: For
decades, one of the major points used by the defenders of the
Shroud to support authenticity was the absence of the thumbs.
The expression,, "Could a forger have imagined
this" was coined by Barbet when he postulated that the
missing thumb on the Shroud was due to injury to the median
nerve by the passage of the nail which stimulated the nerve
causing the thumb to be drawn into the palm of the hand.
This phrase has been quoted numerous times in books, magazine
articles, lectures etc. It has become a "Shroud
spin". Unfortunately, this is incorrect and
invoking "Occams razor", we find a simple
explanation that separates fact from fiction. The reason
as to why the thumbs are not visible on the Shroud image is
simply because their natural position both in death and in
the living person is in the front of and slightly to the side of
the index finger. This is readily
demonstrated by extending your arms in front of you with your
hands in a relaxed position and note that the thumbs are below
the index finger. Cross your wrists and note that your
thumbs are hidden behind the index fingers. I have observed this
on a daily basis in the medical examiner's office over the past
thirty years on deceased individuals who are regularly brought
into our morgue wrapped in shrouds or sheets with their wrists
crossed and frequently tied together. The shrouds or
sheets never contact the thumbs. In every case, the thumbs
are in a position in front of and slightly to the side of the
index fingers. The shrouds or sheets never contact
the thumbs. Barbet's explanation has to be incorrect for two
reasons; the median nerve does not pass through Destot's
space and even if it did and was injured, there would be
no flexion of the thumb. Dr. Ernest Lampe, one of world's
leading hand surgeons relates that in severance of the median
nerve...... "there is inability to flex the thumb, index
and middle fingers". This was confirmed in the
case of lady described above who was stabbed in the Z-area
of the hand while defending herself. Although the median
nerve was injured and the knife exited in the exact place
where the Shroud shows the hand wound image, the
thumb was not drawn into the palm.
CAUSE
OF DEATH: Barbet
postulated that the cause of death was due to asphyxiation
during suspension on the cross and what appeared to be a cogent
analysis was in fact based only on a priori speculations.
He proffered three points that he thought evinced proof of
his hypothesis; first,
the reports of soldiers in the Austro-German army by LeBec[15][16]
in 1925 and Hynek[17]
in 1936 who indicated that they were punished by
hanging them above their heads by their arms with their
feet just off the ground. They had extreme difficulty breathing
out and would raise themselves to breathe repeatedly until
exhaustion set in. They developed severe muscle
contractions and spasm and died violently of asphyxiation.
Barbet, also added another case from a Dachau victim who was
punished in a similar way. Dr. Moedder[18],
the Austrian radiologist, also attempted to confirm the
asphyxiation theory by suspending medical students by the wrists
with their hands above their head less than 40 inches apart on a
horizontal bar. He reported that orthostatic collapse occurred
in the students within six minutes. His experiments merely
confirmed that asphyxiation could occurs if a person is
suspended by the hands directly above their head within 40
inches from each other. Moreover, Jesus was suspended on the
cross for several hours not 10 minutes. There is no doubt that
if Jesus was suspended with his hands in the same manner, there
would be difficulty breathing but not if the victim is suspended
with his arms at an angle of between 65 to 70 degrees.
The
second point
that Barbet's used in an attempt to prove his hypothesis was
that the hand wound image revealed an apparent double flow of
blood with an angle of 5 degrees. He alleged that this
demonstrated that the air is locked in inspiration requiring the
man on the Shroud to raise himself in order to breathe
therefore, causing a change in the angle of blood flow emanating
from the wound on the wrist. When we tested for this change in
angle during our suspension experiments noted below, we found
that there was absolutely, no change in the angle of the
wrists when our volunteers raised themselves up in the manner
described by Barbet. The arms always bent at the elbows The
problem with Barbet's assumption is that the so called
bifurcated pattern is located on the back of the hand and not on
the front. The back of the hand is nailed firmly against
the patibulum of the cross and the hand and wrist are heavily
endowed with vast networks of blood vessels being constantly fed
by major blood vessels (the radial artery and vein and the ulnar
artery and vein) anastomosing with each other from both sides of
the hand. The beating heart would be constantly extruding blood
through the wound. This would create a large blood smudge
all over the hand, wrist and down the arm. Every movement on the
cross would result in episodes of oozing and over several hours
there would be a substantial blood collection and not a perfect
bifurcation pattern with two individual flows. The third
and last point to
support his hypothesis was the evidence of skelekopia or
crufragium inflicted on the two thieves that Barbet claimed
was performed to prevent the victims from raising themselves in
order to breathe. This speculation by Barbet was incorrect.
First of all, there is evidence by Haas[19],
from the Giv’at ha Mivtar Excavation that the tibia and fibula
bones of the crucified 7 A.D. Jew, had been broken yet their
reconstruction of the position on the cross placed the body in a
maximal, lifted position where the arms are parallel to the
patibulum. Zias and Sekeles[20]
disagree with Haas' interpretation because they say the breaks
are at different angles and believe they must have occurred
after death. This, however, is incorrect from a forensic point
of view, because there may have been more than one blow struck
at different angles. The ritual of crurifragium was to
render the coup de
grace blow
performed at a time when the victim was near death to hasten
death by causing severe traumatic shock. Moreover,
fractures of the bones of the lower extremities may also cause
death by fat embolism. According to some authors, the
crurifragium was also performed to prevent the victim from
crawling away following removal from the cross so that wild
animals could devour them.
I
present the following sobering query in a nut shell for anyone
to contemplate whether the crucarius, Jesus would be physically
able to raise himself to breathe for a period of several hours
while suspended on the cross as proposed by Barbet. Could
a person in a state of traumatic and hypovolemic shock who had
undergone severe anxiety to a point of hematidrosis, had been
brutally scourged with a flagrum, suffered trigeminal neuralgia
from the crowning with thorns, stumbled and fell for a half mile
carrying a 50 pound cross part of the way, then nailed through
the hands and feet with large spike-like nails and suspended on
a cross be able to repeatedly push and pull themselves up
against the spike-like nails in their swollen, exquisitely
tender hands and feet in order to breathe over a period of
several hours?
I don't think so!
EXPERIMENTAL
Although
the refutations of each of Barbet's hypotheses proffered above
should impugn Barbet's asphyxiation hypothesis, some may view
them as another a priori argument. Therefore, an a
posteriori approach was designed to clear this controversy
up once and for all since there had been no attempt, past or
present to confirm or disprove Barbet's work,
experimentally. In this regard, a very sturdy cross was
constructed with the stipes measuring 92" high, the
patibulum measuring 78" long and the base secured with
reinforced angle iron. A series of numbered holes were drilled
through each arm of the patibulum at close intervals to allow
for different arm lengths. This was necessary because the
longer the arm length the closer to vertical the individual
would hang if a single hole was provided for all arm lengths.
Each hole was drilled in a slightly downward direction from
front to back so that bolts could be inserted from back to front
in an upward direction to avoid slippage by special leather
gauntlets used to secure the hands to the patibulum without
constricting the wrists and compromising the blood supply. An
opening was provided at the level of the base of the middle
fingers so they could be placed over the bolt that corresponded
to the arm length of the volunteer. Human volunteers
between the ages of 20 and 35 were given a physical examination
and resting values were obtained which included, a 12 lead
electrocardiogram, pulse rates, blood pressure, auscultatory
examination, vital capacity, ear oximetry values, arterial blood
gases, and venous blood chemistries. A gauntlet was firmly tied
on each hand and heart monitoring electrodes were placed on
their chests and attached to a stress testing apparatus 'which
monitored the electrical patterns of the heart, monitored the
heart rate with digital readouts, and provided electrocardiogram
strips automatically, each minute. A blood pressure cuff
with double transducers was placed on the arm and attached to an
Infrasonde electronic blood pressure unit and a Waters ear
oximeter probe was attached to an ear and connected to an
instrument that records the oxygen concentration of the blood at
all times. Each volunteer was instructed to inform us of
any breathing difficulties, pains of any kinds, muscle cramps,
or any other problems. They were also requested not to
attempt to lift their body up at any time by straightening their
legs. Each volunteer climbed up on a stool, placed their
outstretched arms along the patibulum to line up the
holes in the gauntlets with the respective holes on the
patibulum corresponding to their arm length and bolts were
inserted into the appropriate holes through the back of the
patibulum then through the holes in the gauntlets. The
table was carefully removed allowing the volunteer to be fully
suspended. A modified seat belt was then utilized to
secure the feet flush to the upright of the cross. An
emergency crash cart complete with a defibrillator, cardiac
medications and intubation equipment was on hand to provide for
the patients safety. Individuals were stationed to the
right and left of the volunteers in case of an emergency.
During the period of suspension, the following information was
tabulated: visual inspection was made for muscle twitching,
chest excursions, color, sweating, etc., and subjective
information including pain, breathing problems psychological
feelings, etc. were also recorded. A heart-lung evaluation
was performed that included an auscultatory examination of the
heart and lungs, periodic drawing of arterial blood for
gas analyses, ear oximeter readings, vital capacity, 12 lead
electrocardiograms and specific leads, blood pressures, periodic
blood chemistry screening including a routine chemistry
screen, CPK with isoenzymes, lactic acid, etc. Douglas bag
collections of the inspired and expired air were taken at
various intervals.
An
experiment was performed on several of the volunteers who were
requested to push themselves up with their feet as was indicated
in Barbet's Asphyxiation Theory, in order to observe the angle
of the wrist in both positions.Ten volunteers were studied by
the above procedures but without strapping their feet to the
cross with the seat belt device and compared to those whose feet
were supported by the seat belt in order to determine if the
feet support had any effect on breathing and whether the pains
in the arms and shoulders were increased.
The
results of these studies are as follows; The volunteers
were suspended for periods ranging from 5 minutes to 45
minutes determined by when they wished to come down. The
major reasons for this decision was almost always due to the
pain or cramping in the shoulders, hands and legs. The angle of
the arms with the upright varied between individuals with a wide
range from 60 to 70 degrees. There was no visual evidence of
breathing difficulties throughout the suspension on any of the
volunteers. Subjectively, every volunteer affirmed that
they had absolutely no trouble breathing either during
inspiration or expiration. A common complaint was a
feeling of chest rigidity and leg cramps between 10 and 20
minutes into suspension. When this occurred, they were allowed
to straighten their legs or come down. The oxygen content of the
blood either increased or remained constant. Both visual
observations and Douglas bag studies determined this to be the
result of hyperventilation with abdominal breathing beginning
after 4 minutes at a rate about 3-5 times normal. Sweating that
varied in amount from mild to marked occurred at about 6 minutes
in most volunteers. The heart rate increased up to 120-126 beats
per minute but there were no arrhythmias. There were
occasional rapid rates as high as 175 but this went back down
after the volunteer got over their initial anxiety. The
blood pressure increased to varying degrees but never
above 160 mm, systolic in everyone depending on
their state of conditioning. The electrocardiogram only
showed muscle tremors but no cardiac abnormalities. The
backs of the volunteers never touched the cross except in the
shoulder region where it was slight. Pain in the shoulders
caused many of them to arch their bodies back so that the top of
the head touched the stipes thereby relieving some of the pain.
None of the volunteers made any attempt to push themselves
up to facilitate breathing as was alleged by Tribbe[21]
except in the experiment when they were requested to do so.
In
the experiment where the volunteers were requested to raise
themselves up to breathe, at no time did the wrists change
their angle. Instead, the arms naturally flexed at the
elbows. The volunteers that were suspended without securing
their feet had no difficulty breathing and afforded identical
clinical values as those who had their feet secured. The
only difference was that the pain was severe in the
shoulders and arms and some had difficulty getting relief of
their shoulder pains because of the difficulty in arching their
backs as was done by those who had their feet secured. As
a result their times of suspension varied from 8 to 18 minutes.
DISCUSSION
In order to arrive at the
most probable cause of death, it is essential to examine the
sequence of all the events from Gethsemane through Calvary; the
severe mental anguish exhibited in the Garden of Gethsemane
would cause some loss in blood volume both from sweating and
hematidrosis and provoke marked weakness. The barbaric
scourging that utilized a flagrum composed of leather tails
containing metal weights or bone at the tip would cause
penetration of the skin with trauma to the nerves, muscles and
skin reducing the victim to an exhausted, wretched condition
with shivering, severe sweating, frequent displays of seizures,
and a craving for water. The results would cause a
significant degree of trauma with impending shock (traumatic
shock) and fluid loss and impending hypovolemic shock
(fluid loss shock), the latter resulting from the various
sweating episodes, and from the fluid accumulation around the
lungs (pleural effusion) from the scourging. Animal
experimentation by Daniels and Cate[22]
showed that blows to the chest in animals resulted in rupture of
the air spaces in the lung (alveoli) and spasms of the air tubes
(bronchi). Moreover the term "traumatic wet
lung" refers to the accumulation of blood, fluid and mucus
from severe trauma (injury) to the chest. This would be
manifested several hours after the scourging. It may
be of interest that the conclusion of traumatic shock from
scourging, was also made by both Tenney[23]
and Primrose[24].
The irritation of the trigeminal and greater occipital nerves of
the scalp by the cap of thorns especially after he was struck
several times with reeds would also contribute to traumatic
shock. The bumpy, uphill road to Golgotha in the hot sun,
would incite trigger zones to initiate episodes of severe
lancinating pain across the face due to trigeminal
neuralgia and the carrying of the crosspiece on the
shoulder for a time, with episodes of falling, also added to the
oncoming traumatic shock and hypovolemia. The progression
of the pleural effusion due to the scourging would lead to
increasing hypovolemia. The large square iron nails driven
through both hands into the patibulum would damage the sensory
branches of the median nerve resulting in one of the most
exquisite pains ever experienced by anyone and known medically
as causalgia. The nails through the feet would also
elicit severe pain due to causalgia from the injury to the
plantar nerves. The causalgia would be aggravated by the sun,
heat and fatigue. all of which would cause additional traumatic
shock and hypovolemia. The hours on the cross, with
pressure of the weight of the body on the nails of the feet and
the pull on the hands would cause episodes of excruciating agony
every time the cruciarius moved. These episodes of
unrelenting pains added to the pains of the chest wall from the
scourging would greatly increase the state of traumatic shock
and the excessive sweating induced by the ongoing trauma and by
the hot sun, would cause a increase in the degree of hypovolemic
shock.
The
pathophysiological events that occur as a result of these events
leading to death are those of traumatic and hypovolemic shock.
Shock, regardless of its cause is defined " ... as a
constellation of syndromes all characterized by low perfusion
and circulatory insufficiency, leading to an imbalance between
the metabolic needs of vital organs and the available blood
flow." It is ".. a state of inadequate perfusion of
all cells and tissues, which at first leads to reversible
hypoxic injury, but if sufficiently protracted or grave, to
irreversible cell and organ injury and sometimes to the death of
the patient ".[25]
This presents a very complex array of initiating factors,
compensatory reactions and several other interrelationships.[26],
[27]
CONCLUSIONS
A series of
experiments were conducted on volunteers suspended on a very
accurate cross utilizing sophisticated techniques to determine
whether asphyxiation was the cause of death during
crucifixion as propounded by Barbet3, LeBec14,
and Hynek,15. The results of
these studies overwhelmingly disprove the asphyxiation theory.
In order to gain a more precise understanding of crucifixion and
its manifestations on the Shroud, and to determine the cause of
death by crucifixion, each phase of the journey was meticulously
analyzed including the hematidrosis, the scourging, the crowning
of thorns, the trip to Calvary, the fixation to the cross, the
raising of the cross, and the suspension on the cross.
This included the loss in blood and fluid volume during
the severe anxiety and hematidrosis in Gethsemane, the severe
trauma, excess sweating and onset of pleural effusion inflicted
by the brutal scourging, the trigeminal neuralgia, and
loss of fluid from sweating caused by the crowning with
thorns, the trauma and the loss of fluid as a consequence of
sweating from carrying the cross, falling during the trek to
Calvary, the severe trauma and the loss in blood and fluid
from fixation of the hands and feet and raising the cross, and
the severe trauma and fluid loss during the suspension. The
reconstruction of all of these factors revealed the cause
of death in crucifixion to be due to traumatic and
hypovolemic shock.
Other
information determined during these studies include the
following;
a.)
Barbet erred in that Destot's
space does not conform to the hand image on the Shroud of Turin
because the image is on the radial (thumb) side of the wrist
while Destot's space is on the u1nar (little finger) side of the
wrist.
b.)
The trunk of the median nerve could not be severed if a nail
passed through Destot's space because the median nerve is not
present in the area of Destot's space. It runs along the
opposite side ( radial ) of the wrist.
c.)
Since the Shroud only shows the site of the nail's exit and not
where the nail entered., only two possibilities exist as
to where the nail entered: either through the radial side of the
wrist or through the upper part of the palm angled toward the
wrist (the Z-area).
d.)
The most plausible region for the nail entry site in the case of
Jesus is the upper part of the palm since this area can easily
support the weight of the body, the nail would exit where the
Shroud depicts it, assures that no bones are broken, marks
the location where most people believed it to be, accounts for
where most of the stigmatists have displayed their wounds, is
located where artists through the centuries have designated it
and lastly it explains the apparent lengthening of the fingers
of the hand because of nail compression. e.) The thumbs are
missing from the Shroud image because the natural position both
in death and in the living person is in front of and slightly to
the side of the index finger and not due to injury to the median
nerve by the passage of the nail as indicated by Barbet.
Injury to the median nerve would not cause permanent flexion
(bending of thumb into palm) and, Barbet was obviously striking
the ulnar nerve and not the median nerve when he drove a nail
through Destot's space on the amputated hand.
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- 1.
Zugibe, F.T., The Cross and the Shroud ,
A Medical Inquiry into the Crucifixion New
York, Paragon Press, 1988 pp 30-33
- 2.
Barbet, P., Les Cinq Plaies du Christ, 2nd ed.
Paris: Procure du Carmel de l'Action de Graces, 1937.
- 3.
Barbet, Pierre. Doctor at Calvary. New York: P.
J. Kennedy & Sons, 1953; New York: Image Books,
1963.
- 4
Kraemer, H. C. "Lies, Damn Lies, and
Statistics" in Clinical Research The
Pharos, fall pgs. 712, 1992.
- 5.
Pooley, J.H. Bloody Sweat. The Popular Science
Monthly. 26: 357-365, 1884-5.
- 6.
Scott, C. T "A Case of Hematidrosis. " British
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- 7.
Zugibe, F.T., The Man of the Shroud was Washed. Sindon
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Evanari, M. Personal Communication, Oct. 10,
1964.
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medizinisch‑‑apologetische. Studie
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- 21.
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